Joshua is a theologically shaped account of promise, land, covenant, and identity, not a simple modern battlefield report.
The book presents Joshua son of Nun as Moses' commissioned successor. Israel crosses the Jordan, remembers the covenant, fights campaigns, receives tribal territories, resolves a conflict over an altar, and renews covenant at Shechem. Its repeated claim is that God keeps promises and that life in the land requires courage, unity, remembrance, and obedience to Torah.[1][3][4][28][29]
The received book is anonymous. It preserves older settlement, boundary, and tribal traditions while showing substantial literary shaping in relation to Deuteronomy, Judges, and the Former Prophets. Its sweeping conquest summaries sit beside statements that land and Canaanite communities remained, while archaeology points to a complex emergence of Israel within Canaan rather than one simultaneous total campaign.[5][15][16]
Joshua quick facts
- Traditional author
- Joshua son of Nun in rabbinic tradition, with later material completed after his death.
- Modern assessment
- An anonymous, layered work preserving older traditions and later literary shaping.
- Likely composition
- Older memories and land traditions shaped substantially in late monarchic, exilic, and postexilic periods.
- Original language
- Biblical Hebrew, with prose narrative, lists, speeches, treaty material, and poetry.
- Major textual witnesses
- Masoretic tradition, 4Q47, 4Q48, Greek Septuagint, and later ancient versions.
- Jewish placement
- The first book of the Former Prophets, immediately after the Torah.
- Major sections
- Entry and conquest, land allotment, and tribal return with farewell and covenant renewal.
- Canonical status
- Scripture in Judaism and all major Christian biblical traditions.
Who wrote the Book of Joshua?
Traditional attribution
Joshua is the central human figure and the narrative reports that he wrote covenant words in the book of God's Torah at Shechem. Rabbinic discussion in Bava Batra 14b traditionally attributes the book to Joshua, while recognizing that material after his death required completion by another hand.[1][10]
What the received book shows
The book never opens with a comprehensive author claim, and Joshua 24 narrates Joshua's death and later events. Modern literary study therefore describes the final work as anonymous. The book contains campaign stories, etiologies, geographic lists, tribal boundaries, speeches, covenant instruction, poetry, and editorial summaries that likely did not all originate at one moment.[3][4][5]
Competing compositional models
Joshua has been read as the opening of a Deuteronomistic History from Deuteronomy through Kings, as the completion of a Hexateuch from Genesis through Joshua, as a bridge between Torah and Prophets, and as a once more independent Joshua work later placed between Deuteronomy and Judges. Scholars agree more readily that the book is layered than on the number, date, or social setting of its stages.[4][5][6]
Responsible conclusion: Joshua is the book's hero, covenant leader, and traditional authorial figure. Historical study should honor that reception while acknowledging that the anonymous received book contains later perspective, multiple genres, and a debated literary history.
When was Joshua written?
The story is set after Moses' death and before the period of the judges. That narrated setting belongs to Israel's remembered beginnings in the land; it is not automatically the date when the full book reached its present form.
The book preserves older place traditions, boundary lists, local memories, and stories of settlement. Major scholarly models then place substantial literary shaping in the monarchic era, often with special attention to the late seventh century BCE, followed by exilic and postexilic revision. Proposals connect the book variously with northern Israelite traditions, Josiah's national program, reflection after the fall of the kingdoms, and later Torah formation.[2][5][22]
A careful date statement is therefore a process rather than a single year: older traditions about land and local communities were collected, reinterpreted, and framed over time, with major late monarchic through postexilic development. The precise sequence remains contested.[4][6]
In what language and manuscripts is Joshua preserved?
Joshua was composed in Biblical Hebrew. Its best-known complete Hebrew form comes through the medieval Masoretic tradition, while earlier fragments from Qumran and the ancient Greek Septuagint show that wording and literary arrangement were not entirely uniform before later standardization.[5][9]
Masoretic tradition
The Masoretic form underlies most modern Hebrew editions and many translations. It preserves the longest continuous Hebrew form but is not the only evidence for Joshua's early textual history.
4Q47 and 4Q48
The Israel Antiquities Authority catalogs two Qumran Joshua manuscripts, conventionally called 4QJosha and 4QJoshb. Their surviving fragments provide Hebrew evidence more than a millennium older than the complete medieval codices.[7][8]
Greek Septuagint
Greek Joshua is shorter than the Masoretic form in a number of passages and sometimes reflects a different order or literary form. Scholars debate which differences arose in translation and which reflect a different Hebrew source or editorial stage.[9][12]
Later versions
Old Latin, Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, Armenian, and other translations preserve later reception and sometimes help textual criticism, though their readings must be evaluated through their relationship to Hebrew or Greek sources.[9]
The manuscript evidence does not give researchers a single effortless original text. It gives a family of related witnesses whose agreements and differences help reconstruct the book's transmission and, in some passages, its literary growth.
Summary of Joshua
After Moses' death, God commissions Joshua to lead Israel across the Jordan with courage and fidelity to Torah. Rahab shelters the spies; the people cross on dry ground, build a memorial, practice circumcision, and celebrate Passover. Jericho falls, Achan's violation of the ban brings defeat at Ai, and covenant instruction is read. The Gibeonites secure a treaty, southern and northern campaigns follow, and the land is distributed among the tribes with cities of refuge and Levitical towns. An altar nearly divides the tribes before explanation restores peace. Joshua gives farewell warnings, renews covenant at Shechem, calls Israel to choose whom it will serve, and dies.[1][2]
How is Joshua organized?
1. Commission and entry
Joshua 1-5 moves from Moses' death to Joshua's commission, Rahab and the spies, the Jordan crossing, memorial stones, circumcision, Passover, and the commander of the Lord's army.
2. Central campaign
Joshua 6-8 narrates Jericho, Rahab's rescue, Achan's violation, defeat and victory at Ai, altar building, and public Torah reading.
3. Treaties and campaigns
Joshua 9-12 presents the Gibeonite treaty, southern and northern coalitions, celestial poetry, victory summaries, and a list of defeated kings.
4. Tribal inheritances
Joshua 13-19 describes land that remains, Transjordanian and western allotments, boundaries, towns, Caleb and Achsah, Joseph's tribes, and Joshua's inheritance.
5. Refuge and Levitical towns
Joshua 20-21 assigns cities of refuge and Levitical towns, then summarizes divine promise and Israel's rest.
6. Unity, farewell, covenant
Joshua 22-24 resolves the altar dispute, records Joshua's farewell, retells covenant history at Shechem, calls for decision, and narrates deaths and burials.
This outline follows the book's broad movement, but Joshua also contains internal resumptions, summary formulas, geographic collections, and tensions between complete and incomplete possession. Those features are part of the evidence for its literary history.[4][16]
What are the central themes of Joshua?
God keeps promises
The book repeatedly interprets entry, inheritance, and rest as fulfillment of promises to Israel's ancestors. Its closing summaries emphasize divine faithfulness rather than Israelite strength alone.
Courage under Torah
"Be strong and courageous" is joined to meditation on and obedience to Torah. Courage is not presented as unchecked force but as faithful leadership under instruction.
Presence and holy ground
Jordan, ark, memorial stones, circumcision, Passover, and the commander encounter connect entry to exodus and worship. The land is gift, but Israel is not its autonomous owner.
Memory for future generations
Stones, ceremonies, speeches, boundary traditions, and covenant writing preserve communal memory. Children are expected to ask what these signs mean.
Unity with difference
The tribes receive distinct inheritances yet remain responsible to one another. The Transjordan altar crisis shows how symbols can threaten unity and how patient explanation can prevent violence.
Outsiders and boundary crossing
Rahab and the Gibeonites survive within a conquest narrative. Their stories complicate simple insider-outsider categories while retaining unequal power and difficult consequences.[18]
Land, inheritance, and rest
Land is described through promise, gift, boundaries, family inheritance, unpossessed areas, and rest. The book's geography helps construct both tribal distinction and a shared Israelite identity.[4]
Covenant choice
Joshua 24 retells grace before demanding decision. "Choose whom you will serve" is a communal covenant challenge grounded in remembered deliverance, not a slogan detached from history.
Popular and important passages in Joshua
Joshua 1:1-9
Joshua's commission joins divine presence, courage, Torah meditation, obedience, and succession after Moses.
Joshua 2:1-24
Rahab protects the spies, negotiates for her household, and confesses what she has heard about Israel's God.
Joshua 3:1-17
The Jordan crossing mirrors exodus imagery and publicly confirms Joshua's leadership as the ark leads the people.
Joshua 4:1-24
Twelve stones become a teaching memorial so future generations can ask about divine action and communal identity.
Joshua 5:13-15
Joshua meets the commander of the Lord's army and learns that divine presence cannot be reduced to human ownership of God.
Joshua 6:1-27
Jericho's ritualized fall, the ban, destruction, and Rahab's rescue place promise and judgment beside a severe ethical problem.
Joshua 7:1-26
Achan's violation and collective consequences raise questions about holiness, greed, communal responsibility, and punishment.
Joshua 9:1-27
The Gibeonite treaty tests discernment, oath keeping, survival, deception, and unequal incorporation.
Joshua 10:7-15
A battle narrative contains poetry about sun and moon from the Book of Jashar and emphasizes that the Lord fought for Israel.
Joshua 20:1-9
Cities of refuge place due process and protection from blood vengeance within the land's social order.
Joshua 22:10-34
An altar appears to threaten covenant unity, but investigation and testimony prevent civil war.
Joshua 24:1-28
Covenant renewal recounts divine initiative, rejects rival gods, calls for decision, and establishes witnesses at Shechem.
What difficult questions surround Joshua?
Conquest, settlement, and archaeology
Joshua narrates coordinated campaigns and sweeping victories, while Judges 1 describes incomplete local settlement and Joshua itself says that much land remained. Archaeology does not show a single simultaneous destruction horizon at every named city. Current historical models instead discuss gradual highland settlement, migration, local continuity, social reorganization, conflict, and the emergence of Israel from within a diverse Canaanite world.[13][14][15]
This does not make every story meaningless or every historical question closed. It means the book's theological narrative, individual site histories, literary development, and archaeological evidence must be studied together without forcing one into the role of a simplistic proof tool.
Complete victory and land that remains
Joshua 11 and 21 use fulfillment formulas, yet Joshua 13 opens by saying much land remains, and several allotment notices report continuing Canaanite presence. The book therefore holds together idealized completion, partial possession, inherited claims, and unfinished responsibility. Scholars debate whether these reflect different sources, rhetorical perspectives, or deliberate theological tension.[16]
Herem, killing, and the Canaanites
Joshua depicts cities placed under herem, with people and property devoted to destruction or irreversible divine disposal. Ancient conquest rhetoric can explain totalizing formulas, and archaeology complicates the picture of a rapid total campaign. Neither point makes the narrated deaths unimportant. Later communities have also used Joshua to justify conquest, colonial expansion, and violence, which makes interpretation ethically consequential.[17][19][21]
Responsible reading names Canaanite lives rather than treating them as scenery, listens for marginalized and colonized perspectives, and refuses to turn ancient holy-war texts into authorization against any modern people. Historical explanation is necessary, but it is not the same as moral endorsement.[18][20]
Rahab: faith, survival, and power
Rahab acts decisively, protects the spies, interprets political danger, confesses Israel's God, and secures protection for her household. Her inclusion destabilizes a simple ethnic boundary, yet her story unfolds under invasion and unequal power. Feminist and postcolonial readings ask readers to notice both her agency and the danger surrounding a marginalized foreign woman.[18]
The Gibeonite treaty and forced labor
The Gibeonites deceive Israel's leaders, who fail to seek divine counsel, but Israel keeps the oath and does not kill them. Their survival complicates total-destruction commands, while their assignment to labor exposes unequal incorporation. The episode cannot be reduced to either clever comedy or easy inclusion.
Did the sun stand still?
Joshua 10:12-14 contains compact poetry linked to the Book of Jashar. Its Hebrew verbs, celestial imagery, relation to the prose battle story, and possible ancient astronomical background have produced many proposals: prolonged light, halted motion, stopped shining, poetic battle language, omen imagery, and other readings. No one physical reconstruction has universal agreement.[24][25]
The popular claim that NASA discovered a "missing day" matching Joshua is not documented scientific evidence and should not be repeated as fact. The passage should first be read as ancient poetry within its literary and theological context.
Ancient land theology and modern politics
Joshua's land claims belong to ancient Israelite theology, tribal memory, and literary identity. They have major significance for Jewish and Christian reception, but an ancient sacred narrative is not by itself a modern property deed, military order, or complete rule of international law. Contemporary political claims require contemporary historical, legal, ethical, and human-rights reasoning.
Ethical reading guardrail: Joshua speaks powerfully about promise, faithfulness, courage, covenant, and memory while narrating displacement and killing. Responsible study must neither hide the violence nor weaponize it. It should protect vulnerable readers, include perspectives the text marginalizes, reject modern ethnic application, and distinguish theological interpretation from historical or moral proof.
Key points to remember
- Joshua is the first Former Prophet in Jewish ordering and follows the Torah.
- Joshua son of Nun is Moses' commissioned successor and the book's traditional authorial figure.
- The received book is anonymous and preserves multiple genres and layers of tradition.
- Its Hebrew text is witnessed by the Masoretic tradition and Qumran fragments 4Q47 and 4Q48.
- Greek Joshua differs significantly from the Masoretic form in several passages.
- Divine promise and Torah-shaped courage frame Israel's entry into the land.
- Memorials, ceremonies, boundaries, and speeches form communal identity through remembered grace.
- Rahab and the Gibeonites complicate a simple insider-outsider account.
- Joshua contains both total-conquest summaries and acknowledgments of land and peoples that remain.
- Archaeology points to complex Israelite emergence within Canaan rather than one simple total campaign.
- Herem violence must be named honestly and never applied to modern peoples.
- Joshua's land theology is not a substitute for modern law, ethics, or human rights.
- Joshua 24 grounds covenant choice in a remembered story of divine initiative.
- Jewish and Christian traditions receive and interpret Joshua in distinct ways.
Passages that deserve deeper study
Joshua 1 and Deuteronomy 31
Compare Joshua's commission with Moses' words to trace succession, courage, divine presence, and Torah.
Joshua 2 and 6
Read Rahab's confession, negotiation, household rescue, and incorporation alongside later biblical reception.
Joshua 3-5 and Exodus 12-14
Trace crossing, memorial, Passover, holy ground, and the literary presentation of a new exodus.
Joshua 6-8
Study Jericho, Achan, Ai, altar, Torah reading, collective responsibility, and the moral weight of the ban.
Joshua 9 and 2 Samuel 21
Follow the Gibeonite treaty, oath, forced labor, and its troubling consequences across later narrative.
Joshua 10:12-14
Compare the poetry with its prose setting, the Book of Jashar reference, Hebrew vocabulary, and ancient celestial imagery.
Joshua 11, 13, and 21
Place totalizing fulfillment statements beside remaining land and continuing Canaanite presence.
Joshua 15-19
Map tribal boundaries and towns while asking how geography, genealogy, memory, and identity work together.
Joshua 20 and Numbers 35
Compare cities of refuge, asylum, blood vengeance, testimony, and due process.
Joshua 22
Study misunderstanding, investigation, testimony, alternative witnesses, and conflict de-escalation.
Joshua 24 and Genesis 12-50
Trace the covenant speech from the ancestors through exodus and land, including its textual variation.
Joshua, Hebrews, and James
Distinguish historical narrative, Rahab's later exemplarity, typology, and the theology of rest.
Connections with other biblical and early writings
Deuteronomy: Joshua begins after Moses' death and repeatedly echoes Torah, covenant, courage, the ban, blessing, land, and the need not to turn aside. These links support its placement after the Torah and fuel debates over Deuteronomistic composition.[5][6]
Exodus and Numbers: Jordan crossing resembles sea crossing; memorial, circumcision, Passover, holy ground, ark, spies, tribal census traditions, boundaries, refuge towns, and Levitical towns connect entry to wilderness formation.
Judges: Judges 1 presents local and incomplete settlement, while Joshua uses stronger national and fulfillment summaries. Reading them together prevents a flat account of early Israel.[1][16]
Samuel and Kings: The Gibeonite oath returns in 2 Samuel 21, covenant and chosen-service themes continue, and later kings are evaluated through Deuteronomic concerns. Some scholars see Joshua's portrait as shaped partly by hopes associated with Josiah.[22]
Psalms and prophets: Psalms remember sea, Jordan, and land; prophets reinterpret exodus, nations, judgment, and future peace. These later voices must be heard alongside, not used to pretend Joshua's violence was never narrated.
Second Temple and rabbinic writings: Ben Sira, Josephus, Pseudo-Philo, Qumran materials, and rabbinic literature reshape Joshua as warrior, prophet, Torah master, miracle worker, and covenant leader. Reception varies by community and period.[26]
Acts, Hebrews, and James: Acts 7 recalls Israel's entry. Hebrews 11 names Jericho and Rahab, James 2 presents Rahab's action as enacted faith, and Hebrews 3-4 distinguishes Joshua's land rest from God's continuing rest.
Early Christianity: Origen's homilies read Joshua typologically and transform warfare into spiritual struggle. This influential approach shows how Christians received the book, but it should not silence the ancient narrative's human victims.[23]
Which communities receive Joshua as Scripture?
In Jewish Scripture, Joshua begins the Former Prophets. It belongs to the Christian Old Testament across Protestant, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Ethiopian Orthodox traditions. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church's official list names Joshua sixth among its Old Testament books.[10][11]
The Samaritan canon consists of the Pentateuch, so the Hebrew Book of Joshua is not part of Samaritan Torah. Samaritan communities nevertheless developed later Joshua narratives that belong to reception history and should not be confused with the canonical book.[27]
Frequently asked questions
Who wrote the Book of Joshua?
Rabbinic tradition attributes the book to Joshua, and Joshua is its central human figure. The received book is anonymous, however, and narrates Joshua's death. Most modern scholars therefore distinguish traditional attribution from the layered composition and editing of the final book.
When was the Book of Joshua written?
The story is set after Moses' death during Israel's entry into Canaan. The book preserves older memories and land traditions, while most scholars place major literary shaping in late monarchic, exilic, and postexilic periods. The exact sequence remains debated.
Did archaeology prove the conquest of Canaan?
Archaeology does not support one simple, simultaneous, total conquest of every site named in Joshua. Evidence instead points to a complex emergence of Israel within Canaan. Individual sites and historical models remain debated, and archaeology should not be reduced to a slogan of either proof or disproof.
Why are the Hebrew and Greek texts of Joshua different?
Greek Joshua is shorter than the Masoretic form in several places and sometimes appears to reflect a different Hebrew literary form or editorial history. The Dead Sea Scroll fragments add earlier Hebrew evidence, but no surviving witness settles every reading.
What does herem mean in Joshua?
Herem language places people or property under a ban devoted to destruction or irreversible divine disposal. Joshua uses it in narratives of killing and conquest. These passages require honest ethical study and must never be applied as authorization for violence against modern peoples.
Did the sun literally stand still in Joshua 10?
Joshua 10:12-14 is a poetic passage linked to the Book of Jashar. Scholars debate how its verbs, celestial imagery, and relationship to the surrounding prose should be understood. No proposal has universal agreement, and the popular NASA missing-day story is not evidence.
How does Joshua connect to the New Testament?
Hebrews recalls Jericho and Rahab, James presents Rahab as an example of enacted faith, Acts refers to Israel's entry into the land, and Hebrews 3-4 develops a distinction between Joshua's land rest and God's continuing rest. These are later Christian receptions of Jewish Scripture.
Which communities receive Joshua as Scripture?
Joshua belongs to the Jewish Prophets and to the Old Testament of Protestant, Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Ethiopian Orthodox traditions. The Samaritan canon is the Pentateuch, though Samaritan communities developed later Joshua traditions.
Sources and scholarly bibliography
- Joshua. Primary biblical text. References use chapter and verse rather than reproducing a copyrighted modern translation. See also the USCCB introduction and text.
- Boling, Robert G., with introduction by G. Ernest Wright. Joshua. Anchor Yale Bible 6. Yale University Press, paperback edition published 1995. Publisher record.
- Dozeman, Thomas B. Joshua 1-12: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Yale Bible 6B. Yale University Press, 2015. Publisher record.
- Dozeman, Thomas B. Joshua 13-24: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Yale Bible 6C. Yale University Press, 2023. Publisher record.
- Dozeman, Thomas B. "The Book of Joshua in Recent Research." Currents in Biblical Research 15.3 (2017): 270-288. DOI record.
- Romer, Thomas. The So-Called Deuteronomistic History: A Sociological, Historical and Literary Introduction. T&T Clark, 2007. Publisher record.
- Israel Antiquities Authority. "4Q Joshua" (4Q47 / 4QJosha). Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Manuscript record.
- Israel Antiquities Authority. "4Q Joshua" (4Q48 / 4QJoshb). Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library. Manuscript record.
- Greenspoon, Leonard J. "The Book of Joshua-Part 1: Texts and Versions." Currents in Biblical Research 3.2 (2005): 229-261. DOI record.
- Babylonian Talmud, Bava Batra 14b. Rabbinic discussion of the Prophets' order and traditional authorship. Sefaria text record.
- Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. "The Canonical Books of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church." Official church record. Canonical list.
- Fernandez Marcos, Natalio. "Joshua and Judges." In The Oxford Handbook of the Septuagint, 207-220. Oxford University Press, 2021. DOI record.
- Killebrew, Ann E. Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel 1300-1100 B.C.E. Society of Biblical Literature, 2005. Publisher record.
- Faust, Avraham. Israel's Ethnogenesis: Settlement, Interaction, Expansion and Resistance. Equinox/Routledge, 2006. Publisher record.
- Faust, Avraham. "The Birth of Israel." In The Oxford History of the Holy Land, 5-33. Oxford University Press, 2023. DOI record.
- Wazana, Nili. "'Everything Was Fulfilled' versus 'The Land That Yet Remains': Contrasting Conceptions of the Fulfillment of the Promise in the Book of Joshua." In The Gift of the Land and the Fate of the Canaanites in Jewish Thought, 13-35. Oxford University Press, 2014. DOI record.
- Younger, K. Lawson, Jr. Ancient Conquest Accounts: A Study in Ancient Near Eastern and Biblical History Writing. Sheffield Academic Press, 1990; T&T Clark reprint, 2009. Publisher record.
- Howard, Cameron B. R. "Feminist and Postcolonial Readings of the Historical Books." In The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible, 406-420. Oxford University Press, 2020. DOI record.
- Hofreiter, Christian. Making Sense of Old Testament Genocide: Christian Interpretations of Herem Passages. Oxford University Press, 2018. DOI record.
- Anderson, Gary A. "What About the Canaanites?" In Divine Evil? The Moral Character of the God of Abraham, 269-282. Oxford University Press, 2010. DOI record.
- Davis, Ellen F. "Joshua: The Un-Conquest Narrative-Joshua." In Opening Israel's Scriptures, 129-143. Oxford University Press, 2019. DOI record.
- Sweeney, Marvin A. "Joshua." In King Josiah of Judah: The Lost Messiah of Israel, 125-136. Oxford University Press, 2001. DOI record.
- Origen. Homilies on Joshua. Translated by Barbara J. Bruce; edited by Cynthia White. Fathers of the Church 105. Catholic University of America Press, 2002. Publisher record.
- Hom, Mary Katherine. "A Day Like No Other: A Discussion of Joshua 10:12-14." The Expository Times 115.7 (2004): 217-223. DOI record.
- Oeste, Gordon K. "'A Day Like No Other' in the Context of Yahweh War: Joshua 10:14 and the Characterization of Joshua." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 57.4 (2014): 689-702. Journal PDF.
- Farber, Zev I. "Joshua in Reception History." In The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible, 436-451. Oxford University Press, 2020. DOI record.
- Kartveit, Magnar. "The Pentateuch and the Samaritans." In The Oxford Handbook of the Pentateuch, 95-110. Oxford University Press, 2021. DOI record.
- McConville, Gordon, and Stephen Williams. Joshua. Two Horizons Old Testament Commentary. Eerdmans, 2010. Publisher record.
- Younger, K. Lawson, Jr. "Joshua." In Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans digital edition. Publisher record.